At the first rise of language, men would begin with
giving names to the different objects which they
discerned, or thought of. The stock of words would,
then, be very small. As men's ideas multiplied, and
their acquaintance with objects increased, their store
of names and words would also increase. But to the vast
variety of objects and ideas, no language is adequate.
No language is so copious, as to have a separate word
for every separate idea. Men naturally sought to abridge
this labour of multiplying words without end; and, in
order to lay less burden on their memories, made one
word, which they had already appropriated to a certain
idea or object, stand also for some other idea or
object, between which and the primary one, they found,
or fancied, some relation. The names of sensible
objects, were the words most early introduced; and were,
by degrees, extended to those mental objects, of which
men had more obscure conceptions, and to which they
found it more difficult to assign distinct names. They
borrowed, therefore, the name of some sensible idea,
where their imagination found some affinity. Thus, we
speak of a piercing judgment, and a clear
head; a soft or a hard heart; a rough
or smooth behaviour. We say, inflamed by
anger, warmed by love, swelled with pride,
melted into grief; and these are almost the only
significant words which we have for such ideas.
Advantages of the Figures of Speech
The principal advantages of figures of speech, are the two following.
First, They enrich language and render it more copious. By their means, words and phrases are multiplied, for expressing all sorts of ideas; for describing even the minutest differences; the nicest shades and colours of thought; which no language could possibly do by proper words alone, without assistance from Tropes.
Secondly, They frequently give us a much clearer and more striking view of the principal object, than we could have, if it were expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory idea. By a well-chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and the impression of a truth upon the mind, made more lively and forcible than it would otherwise be. We perceive this in the following illustration of Young: " When we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and noxious"; and in this instance: " A heart boiling with violent passions, will always send up infatuating fumes to the head." An image that presents so much congruity between a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, and to induce belief.
Having considered the general nature of figures, we proceed next to particularize such of them as are of the most importance; viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Apostrophe, Antithesis, Interrogation, Exclamation, Amplification or Climax, &c.
Metaphors
A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much-allied to simile or comparison, and is indeed no other than a comparison, expressed in an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, "that he upholds the state, like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison: but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the pillar of the state," it now becomes a metaphor. In the latter case, the comparison between the minister and a pillar is made in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison.
The following are examples of metaphor taken from Scripture: "I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will be the glory in the midst of her." "Thou art my rock and my fortress." "Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path."
Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors.
1. Metaphors, as well as other figures, should, on no
occasion, be stuck on profusely; and should always be
such as accord with the strain of our sentiment.
2. Care should be taken that the
resemblance, which is the foundation of the metaphor, be
clear and perspicuous, not farfetched, nor difficult to
discover. The transgression of this rule
makes what are called harsh or forced metaphors; which
are displeasing, because they puzzle the reader, and
instead of illustrating the thought, render it perplexed
and intricate.
3. In the third place, we should be careful, in the conduct of metaphors, never to jumble metaphorical and plain language together.
Mixed Metaphors and Extended Metaphors
4. We should avoid making two inconsistent metaphors meet on one object. This is what is called mixed metaphor, and is indeed one of the greatest misapplications of this figure. One may be "sheltered under the patronage of a great man": but it would be wrong to say, "sheltered under the mask of dissimulation": as a mask conceals, but does not shelter.
As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should not
be crowded together on the same object; for the mind has
difficulty in passing readily through many different
views of the same object, presented in quick succession.
The last rule concerning metaphors, is, that they be not too far pursued. If the resemblance, on which the figure is founded, be long dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circumstances, we tire the reader, who soon grows weary of this stretch of fancy; and we render our discourse obscure. This is called straining a metaphor. Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to run into this exuberance of metaphor. When they hit upon a figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it, and frequently continue it so long, as to become tedious and intricate. We may observe, for instance, how the following metaphor is spun out.
Allegory
An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued; since it is the representation of some one thing by another that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it. We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory, in the 80th psalm; where the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine: and the figure is carried throughout with great exactness and beauty. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it: and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river. Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine!" . . .
The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an allegory, is, that the figurative and the literal meaning be not mixed inconsistently together. Indeed, all the rules that were given for metaphors, may also be applied to allegories, on account of the affinity they bear to each other. The only material difference between them, besides the one being short and the other being prolonged, is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that are connected with it in their proper and natural meaning: as, when I say, "Achilles was a lion"; "An able minister is the pillar of the state"; the "lion" and the "pillar" are sufficiently interpreted by the mention of "Achilles" and the "minister," which I join to them; but an allegory is or may be, allowed to stand less connected with the literal meaning, the interpretation not being so directly pointed out, but left to our own reflection.
Allegory was a favourite method of delivering instruction in ancient times; for what we call fables or parables, are no other than allegories.
By words and actions attributed to beasts or inanimate objects, the dispositions of men were figured; and what we call the moral, is the unfigured sense or meaning of the allegory.
Similes
A Comparison or Simile, is, when the resemblance between two objects is expressed in form, and generally pursued more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits; as when it is said, "The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." . . .
The advantage of this figure arises from the illustration which the simile employed gives to the principal object; from the clearer view which it presents; or the more strong impression which it stamps upon the mind. Observe the effect of it in the following instance. The author is explaining the distinction between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind. "As wax," says he, "would not be adequate to the purpose of signature, if it had not the power to retain as well as to receive the impression, the same holds of the soul with respect to sense and imagination. Sense is its receptive power; imagination, its retentive. Had it sense without imagination, it would not be as wax, but as water, where, though all impressions are instantly made, yet as soon as they are made, they are instantly lost."
Comparisons ought not to be founded on likenesses which are too faint and remote. For these, in place of assisting, strain the mind to comprehend them, and throw no light upon the subject. It is also to be observed, that a comparison which, in the principal circumstances, carries a sufficiently near resemblance, may become unnatural and obscure, if pushed too far. Nothing is more opposite to the design of this figure, than to hunt after a great number of coincidences in minute points, merely to show how far the writer's ingenuity can stretch the resemblance
Metonymy
A Metonymy is founded on the several relations, of cause and effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified. When we say: "They read Milton," the cause is put instead of the effect; meaning "Milton's works." On the other hand, when it is said, "Gray hairs should be respected," we put the effect for the cause, meaning by "gray hairs," old age. "The kettle boils," is a phrase where the name of the container is substituted for that of the thing contained. "To assume the sceptre" is a common expression for entering on royal authority; the sign being put for the thing signified
Synecdoche
When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant; the figure is then called a Synecdoche or Comprehension. It is very common, for instance, to describe a whole object by some remarkable part of it: as when we say: "A fleet of twenty sail," in the place of "ships"; when we use the "head" for the "person," the "waxes" for the "sea." In like manner, an attribute may be put for a subject: as, "Youth" for the "young," the "deep" for the "sea;" and sometimes a subject for its attribute.
Personification
Personification or Prosopopoeia, is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The use of this figure is very natural and extensive: there is a wonderful proneness in human nature, under emotion, to animate all objects. When we say, "the ground thirsts for rain," or, "the earth smiles with plenty"; when we speak of "ambition's being restless," or, "a disease's being deceitful"; such expressions show the facility with which the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate, or to abstract conceptions of its own forming. . . .
This figure of speech is sometimes very improperly and
extravagantly applied. A capital error in personifying
objects, is, to deck them with fantastic and trifling
circumstances. A practice of this sort dissolves the
potent charm, which enchants and deceives the reader;
and either leaves him dissatisfied, or excites, perhaps,
his risibility. Another error, frequent in descriptive
personifications, consists in introducing them, when the
subject of discussion is destitute of dignity, and the
reader is not prepared to relish them. One can scarcely
peruse, with composure, the following use of this
figure. It is the language of our elegant poet Thomson,
who thus personifies and connects the bodily appetites,
and their gratifications.
It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and short metaphors and similes, which also have been allowed to be the proper language of high passion, that they are the proper expression of it, only on those occasions when it is so far moderated as to admit of words. The first and highest transports seem to overwhelm the mind, and are denoted by silence or groans: next succeeds the violent and passionate language, of which these figures constitute a great part. Such agitation, however, cannot long continue; the passions having spent their force, the mind soon subsides into that exhausted and dispirited state, in which all figures are improper
Apostrophe
Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject, to address some person or thing; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?"
The following is an instance
of personification and
apostrophe united: "O thou
sword of the Lord! how long
will it be ere thou be
quiet? put thyself up into
thy scabbard, rest and be
still! How can it be quiet,
seeing the Lord hath given
it a charge against Askelon,
and against the seashore?
there hath he appointed it."
. . .
A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to deck the object addressed with affected ornaments; by which authors relinquish the expression of passion, and substitute for it the language of fancy.
Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too
great length. The language of violent passion is always
concise, and often abrupt. It passes suddenly from one
object to another. It often glances at a thought, starts
from it, and leaves it unfinished. The succession of
ideas is irregular, and connected by distant and
uncommon relations. On all these accounts, nothing is
more unnatural than long speeches, uttered by persons
under the influence of strong passions. Yet this error
occurs in several poets of distinguished reputation.
Antithesis
The next figure in order, is Antithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance; antithesis, on the contrast or opposition of two objects. Contrast has always the effect, to make each of the contrasted objects appear in the stronger light. White, for instance, never appears so bright as when it is opposed to black; and when both are viewed together. An author, in his defence of a friend against the charge of murder, expresses himself thus: "Can you believe that the person whom he scrupled to slay, when he might have done so with full justice, in a convenient place, at a proper time, with secure impunity; he made no scruple to murder against justice, in an unfavourable place, at an unseasonable time, and at the risk of capital condemnation?" The following examples further illustrate this figure.
- "If you regulate your desires according to the standard of nature, you will never be poor; if according to the standard of opinion, you will never be rich."
Maxims
A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the form of the two last examples; both because it is supposed to be the fruit of meditation, and because it is designed to be engraven on the memory, which recalls it more easily by the help of such contrasted expressions. But where such sentences frequently succeed each other; where this becomes an author's favourite and prevailing manner of expressing himself, his style appears too much studied and laboured; it gives us the impression of an author attending more to his manner of saying things, than to the things themselves.
Hyperbole
The next figure concerning which we are to treat is called Hyperbole or Exaggeration. It consists in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds. In all languages, even in common conversation, hyperbolical expressions very frequently occur: as swift as the wind; as white as the snow; and the like; and the common forms of compliment, are almost all of them extravagant hyperboles. If any thing be remarkably good or great in its kind, we are instantly ready to add to it some exaggerating epithet, and to make it the greatest or best we ever saw. The imagination has always a tendency to gratify itself, by magnifying its present object, and carrying it to excess. More or less of this hyperbolical turn will prevail in language, according to the liveliness of imagination among the people who speak it. Hence young people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the language of the Orientals was far more hyperbolical, than that of the Europeans, who are of more phlegmatic, or, perhaps we may say, of more correct imagination. Hence, among all writers in early times, and in the rude periods of society, we may expect this figure to abound. Greater experience, and more cultivated society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression.
Hyperboles are of two kinds; either such as are employed in description, or such as are suggested by the warmth of passion. All passions without exception, love, terror, amazement, indignation, and even grief, throw the mind into confusion, aggravate their objects, and of course prompt a hyperbolical style. Hence the following sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly as they are described contain nothing but what is natural and proper; exhibiting the picture of a mind agitated with rage and despair.
[women sayinf about Yusuf alahisallam]
Vision
Vision [or the historic present] is another figure of speech, which is proper only in animated and warm composition. It is produced when, instead of relating something that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing before our eyes.
This manner of description supposes a sort of
enthusiasm, which carries the person who describes, in
some measure out of himself; and, when well executed,
must needs, by the force of sympathy, impress the reader
or hearer very strongly.
Interrogation
Interrogation. The unfigured, literal use of interrogation, is to ask a question: but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or deny, with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question, expressing thereby the strongest confidence of the truth of their own sentiment, and appealing to their hearers for the impossibility of the contrary. . . .
Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. We see this in the animated, introductory speech of Cicero against Catiline: "How long will you, Catiline, abuse our patience? Do you not perceive that your designs are discovered?" He might indeed have said; "You abuse our patience a long while. You must be sensible, that your designs are discovered." But it is easy to perceive, how much this latter mode of expression, falls short of the force and vehemence of the former.
Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions of
the mind; such as, surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the
like. "Wo is me that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in
the tents of Kedar!" Psalms. . . .
Though Interrogations may be introduced into close and earnest reasoning, exclamations belong only to strong emotions of the mind. When judiciously employed, they agitate the hearer or the reader with similar passions: but it is extremely improper, and sometimes ridiculous, to use them on trivial occasions, and on mean or low subjects. The inexperienced writer often attempts to elevate his language, by the copious display of this figure: but he rarely or never succeeds. He frequently renders his composition frigid to excess, or absolutely ludicrous, by calling on us to enter into his transports, when nothing is said or done to demand emotion.
Irony
Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our observations. Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by saying; "You have taken great care indeed." Cicero says of the person against whom he was pleading; "We have great reason to believe that the modest man would not ask him for his debt, when he pursues his life."
Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of figure; which, after having set the inconveniences of a thing, in the clearest light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having beautifully described the noise and tumults of Rome, he adds ironically; "Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome."
The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds: and this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual than serious reasoning. The gravest persons have not declined the use of this figure, on proper occasions. The wise and virtuous Socrates made great use of it, in his endeavours to discountenance vicious and foolish practices. . . .
Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united: as in Cicero's oration for Balbus, where he derides his accuser, by saying; " O excellent interpreter of the law! master of antiquity! corrector and amender of our constitution."
[Examples of irony: give them glad tidings of hell-----Pharaoh addressed in hell your majesty]